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In his Textbook on Translation, Peter Newmark proposes to look at translation methods as a continuum between the emphasis on Source Language (SL) and the emphasis on Target Language (TL). Newmark then considers a scale of eight levels:

Word-for-word translation (strongest emphasis on SL)
    Literal translation
    Faithful translation
    Semantic translation
    Communicative translation (emphasis on TL starts to dominate)
    Idiomatic translation
    Free translation
    Adaptation (strongest emphasis on TL)

Levels explained

Newmark provides the following descriptions of his levels (I quote from his book, ommiting mostly examples):

Word-for-word translation is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally.

Literal translation: the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.

Faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It ‘transfers’ cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer.

Semantic translation differs from ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on ‘meaning’ where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents - une nonne repassant un corporal may become ‘a nun ironing a corporal cloth’ - and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between ‘faithful’ and ‘semantic’ translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator’s intuitive empathy with the original.

Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.

Idiomatic translation reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.

Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original.

Adaptation is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten.

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Steps in Translation

Text in Translation

Translation Procedures

Shifting in Translation

V-Flat Translation Theory

Two-Pole Theory (F&D)